Planning a pregnancy? Here are a few things you may like to consider:

Parenting

If you have a partner, this is the time to discuss your ideas on parenting and to work out together what you value in your relationship and what kind of world you wish to create for your child.

• Do you have differing views on parental roles?
• Do you have differing views on discipline?
• Is there a conflict of religious background?
• Are you prepared to progress from your roles as two people and become two parents? Are you ready to put another person first?
• Could you provide your baby with the loving and stable environment it needs?
• Have you spent a full day from dawn until bedtime in a house with children?
• Have you spent time with other people’s children?
• Are you familiar with the workload?

Preconception Care

The moment of fertilisation determines your future child’s entire genetic coding including it’s underlying constitutional strength. Healthy parents make healthy babies.

• What are your views of pre-conception and pregnancy care?
• Are you prepared to stop smoking? Limit alcohol intake? Quit the recreational drugs?
• Are you doing enough exercise?

Nutrition

Many cases of difficulty conceiving and infertility come down to nutritional deficiencies.

• Are you eating the freshest, highest quality foods possible?
• Are your zinc levels adequate? Long periods on oral contraception can decrease your levels of zinc, a micromineral essential for successful conception and foetal development.
• Are you taking folic acid? This B-group vitamin is essential for your baby’s development in the first three months of pregnancy and should be taken as a supplement three to six months before conception.

Contraception

Often women need six months or more for their menstrual cycles to regulate. If you’re someone who has been on the pill for 10 years, see your doctor about stopping contraception to allow your hormones time to recover.

Is there a risk of contracting a sexually transmitted disease while trying to get pregnant?

Bill of Health

• Check that you have been vaccinated against Rubella or German measles. If you haven’t been immunised and you need a shot, wait until three months after the shot before conceiving.
• Do you or your partner have a family history of hereditary health problems? For example, is there a history of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease (especially valve replacement), epilepsy, kidney disease, tuberculosis, syphilis, active herpes, cerebral palsy or Aids/HIV positive? Are there certain precautions you need to take in the interest of your own health?
• Do you need to adjust your medication? Is there a need for genetic counselling? See your doctor.
• Would your pregnancy be considered high risk?
• Is there a history of difficulty conceiving or assisted conception, repeated miscarriage in first trimester, miscarriage/premature birth in second trimester, severe vomiting in early pregnancy, stillbirth, abnormal baby, two or more caesarean sections, severe bleeding at any stage during pregnancy, rhesus incompatibility, postnatal depression? If these are relevant to either of you, see your doctor.
• Do you have chronic back problems? It’s a good idea to see and osteopath before you conceive. Once you are pregnant, many osteopaths are reluctant to work thoroughly for fear of miscarriage occurring. If you combine an osteopathic visit with massage, many back problems can be alleviated and prepare you for a more comfortable and healthy pregnancy.

Dental Health

Have you had a dental check-up recently? It’s a good idea to see your dentist now as your gums will soften during pregnancy and become vulnerable to infection. Gum disease has been linked to premature birth. Should you need dental x-rays, it’s best to have them before you are pregnant as radiation can cause miscarriage.

Insurance

• Do you need to take out private health insurance? Some insurance policies have waiting periods, usually twelve months, before you can claim for certain pregnancy-related costs.
• Does your choice of birth require extra insurance cover? If you want a home birth, some general policies will not cover the birth. If you want private obstetric and hospital care, you may need to revise your insurance policy.

Natural Therapy

• Natural therapies can boost your chances of conception and a healthy pregnancy. Have you considered the following? Acupuncture? Herbal medicine? Homeopathy? Reflexology? Australian Bush Flower essences? Nutritional therapy? All these therapies are worthwhile pursuing in preparation for pregnancy.
• Did you know that many therapies are not advised during the first trimester? This is because some women are sensitive and could miscarry in response to treatment. It is thought that one in every five pregnancies end in miscarriage and three in every four of these occur within the first ten weeks, sometimes before the woman is even conscious of being pregnant. These early miscarriages could manifest as little more than a painful and heavy period. Better to be safe in the early phases.
• Will you choose a natural therapy to help you through your pregnancy? Make sure the therapy you choose is considered safe during pregnancy and that your therapist is qualified and experienced in prenatal care.

Work

• Do you plan to work throughout your pregnancy? If so, are there any factors within your working environment that may be harmful to your developing baby?
• Do you have high stress levels? How would you consider addressing these? Stress can affect your chances of conception and your developing foetus.
• If you do decide to give up work, could you survive on the one income? Are you eligible for maternity leave? Check out your entitlement to parental leave.
  Would your partner consider parental leave? If so, when? Most women say the week following the birth is when partner’s help is most useful and appreciated.

Home

• Do you need to adjust your living environment? Do you need to move? Or move in together?
• If you plan to renovate, arrange to have any jobs that may be harmful to the developing baby such as stripping paint, painting, sanding or sealing, completed before the pregnancy. Alternatively, organise to be elsewhere when this is done.

Car

• Can you drive? If not is it worth getting your driver’s licence before the birth? Do you have a car? Will you be relying upon it for transport during labour? Is it reliable?
• Does it have the necessary anchor point for a baby safety restraint needed for the journey home from the hospital?

Antenatal Testing

• Would you consent to an invasive test?
• Would you consider ultrasound scanning as part of your prenatal care?
• What would you do if you found that your baby had a severe abnormality or disabling condition?
• How would you cope with a child with special needs?
• Or how would you cope with the idea of terminating a progressed pregnancy?

Pregnancy Dangers

• Several over-the-counter medicines can be harmful to your unborn baby?
• Did you know that several foods carry the risk of affecting your baby’s development?

Birthplan

• How would you prefer to give birth?
• Where would you have your baby?
• Would you choose a hospital birth? A home birth? A birthing centre? A waterbirth?
• Who would be at the birth?
• What pain relief would you prefer?
• Would you consent to an assisted birth?

Father Role

• Will the father play a role in deciding how and where the baby is born?
• Will he attend the birth?
• Will he help prepare a birth plan?

Help

• Do you intend having help or childcare following the birth? What is practical? What is affordable?
• Do you have a network of family or friends to call upon?
• There are several support networks and organisations in Australia offering help and advice. Whatever your query or problem, there is always someone to talk to, however trivial your worry may seem.

The following is a guide of products and foods thought to affect conception, pregnancy and lactation.

Gourmet Cheese

Consumption of cheeses including blue vein, camembert, danish blue, stilton and all unpasteurised cheeses increases the risk of contracting listeria. Listeria is a bacterium linked to miscarriage, birth defects, and stillbirth.

Pate

Consumption of any style of pate increases the risk of contracting listeria. Liver and liver-based products contain Vitamin A that can cause birth defects particularly in the first trimester.

Upastereurised Goat or Sheep Products

These products carry the risk of toxoplasmosis, a disease caused by parasites.

Undercooked Meat

Consuming meat that has been cooked rare or medium rare increases the risk of contracting toxoplasmosis, salmonella and escheichia coli (E coli).

Raw or Uncooked Eggs

Eating raw eggs and raw egg products, including homemade mayonnaise, increases the risk of contracting salmonella.

Shellfish

Eating shellfish, particularly raw shellfish such as oysters, increases the risk of listerosis.

"Elderly Prima Gravidas" is the medical term given to a woman over 30 or 35 (depending on the doctor) giving birth for the first time. It literally translates to "old first-time mum". However, it is a term that is quickly dating as more women are choosing to delay motherhood until later in life.

In the last quarter of a century, the median age of first time mothers has increased from 24 years in 1975 to 29 in 2000. Australia Bureau of
Statistics (ABS) projections assume the median age of mothers will reach 31.2 years by 2008.

So why are so many women choosing to have children later in life? There are thought to be many influencing factors. Many women may be:

• Choosing to spend more time developing relationships before settling down with a partner in their mid 30s
• Choosing to achieve financial independence and security before having their first child
• Enjoying the freedom that a family life may potentially compromise choosing instead to travel, study or establish a successful career.

It’s a universal conundrum that for mothers in their 20s, the best years for having children from a medical perspective coincides with the best years for establishing a career.

There is also the thought that the widespread availability and long-term use of contraception has led to both less unplanned pregnancies and obligatory marriages. Also to be considered is the increasing number of pregnancies that are voluntarily terminated.

Many women may choose to delay parenthood in the belief that emotional and psychological maturity better equips them for dealing with the roles that parenthood presents. Some women find it necessary to live a varied and fulfilling life in both a personal and professional sense before embarking on motherhood. Establishing a sense of self is as important to many in today’s progressive society.

The April edition of Time magazine this year ran a cover photograph of a baby on top of an overflowing "pending" filing tray titled: "Babies vs Career - Which should come first for women who want both? The harsh facts about fertility". The article sought to highlight the potential medical obstacles women may face as older women wishing to start a family.

Medical Fraternity

In the medical fraternity it is broadly acknowledged that female fecundity (the ability to conceive) decreases with age. Delaying pregnancy and parenthood raises the likelihood of complications such as:

Difficulty Conceiving

Approximately one in seven couples experience infertility problems if the female is aged between 30-34 years, one in five when she is aged between 35-40 years and one in four for women aged between 40-44 years.

Chromosomal Anomalies

Chromosomal anomalies, including Down’s Syndrome. For a woman aged 20, the risk of Down’s Syndrome is one in 1000; by the age of 30 this increases to one in 600; at the age of 35, it is one in 225 and by 40 years, it is one in 62.

Aging Oocytes

Research indicates that age influences the quality of a woman’s oocytes (eggs) raising the risk of chromosomal anomalies and consequently the incidence of miscarriage and stillbirth.

Pregnancy Complications

The incidence of high blood pressure and gestational diabetes increases with age.

Foetal Deformities

The increasing incidence of foetal problems caused by nutritional deficiencies, such as folic acid, may lead to foetal deformities including neural tube defects and spina bifida.

Fertility Treatment

The effectiveness of fertility treatment, including IVF, is reduced. In 1997 about 9% of mothers assisted by artificial conception were aged 40 years and over, comprising 2% of all mothers.

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

The incidence of pelvic inflammatory disease is increased.

Most health professionals, however, agree that with careful preconception and pregnancy planning, monitoring these problems can be managed, and to some extent, reduced.

Youth is certainly no guarantee of a clean bill of health. There’s genetics to consider, dietary choices, stress levels, along with the fact that many young women today consume far greater quantities of alcohol, recreational drugs and alcohol than women 20 year’s their senior. All these factors will have a bearing on fertility, pregnancy and labour.

Celebrated author and medical professional Christiane Northrup believes that whether or not a woman in her 30s is more at risk of fertility problems or a difficult pregnancy must be completely individualised.
A certified obstetrician and gynaecologist with vast experience in women’s health, Northrup writes in her book Women’s Bodies, Women’s Wisdom:
"I’d much rather take care of a 40-year-old in excellent health who had planned her pregnancy than a 25 year old who smokes two packs and quaffs a gallon of Diet Coke per day. Too often the medical profession "hexes" women who become pregnant in their 30s and 40s by lumping them into a statistically high-risk categories that are not necessarily applicable."
She also says that age is not an absolute measure of the intensity or duration of labour.
"Chronological age (age in years) and biological age (age of one’s tissues) aren’t necessarily related," writes Northrup.

Emotional Ramifications

Having a child later in life will always stir the emotional balance for a couple. When two people have spent a long time establishing themselves as individuals and as a couple living a full life, it can be an unexpectedly difficult transition to life as a family. The sudden responsibility of being parents can threaten a relationship and in some cases, it may not survive.
But one can always argue that a baby will alter any relationship, whatever age the couples and however long they have been together. As Nora Ephron once said:
"A baby is a hand grenade thrown into a marriage".

Bypassing Parenthood

If current rates of birth continue in Australia, 24% of all Australian women will remain childless at the end of their reproductive lives.
In the United States, recent census data indicates that childlessness has doubled in the past 20 years so that one in five women between 40 and 44 are childless.

Increasing median age of fathers

Meanwhile, the median age of fathers in Australia has increased from 29.4 years in 1980 to 32.3 years in 2000, according to the ABS. The growing proportion of fathers aged 40 years and over has contributed to this rise.
In 1980, 5% of fathers were aged 40 years and over - this figure has increased to 11% in 2000.
While it is thought that some fathers may have deliberately delayed fatherhood, it is also a possibility that many of these fathers could be starting a second family with a different partner.

Motherhood on Ice

In the United Kingdom, a 36-year-old woman has achieved pregnancy using her own previously frozen eggs and her husbands sperm, and gone on to give birth to a baby girl. Realistically this means women can choose to freeze their eggs and delay motherhood.

The following is a guide of other risks thought to affect conception, pregnancy and lactation.

Vitamen A

Excessive levels of vitamin A are associated with birth defects including cleft palate and heart malformation. Do not take a vitamin A supplement during pregnancy and if you are taking a multi-vitamin, check that it does not contain vitamin A. Also, avoid cod liver oil supplements as they contain Vitamin A.

Skin Preparations

Avoid anti-ageing creams/acne treatments containing retinol, a form of vitamin A. Excess vitamin A has been linked to birth defects.

Medical Drugs

The following list of drugs and medicines are thought to be high-risk:

• Lithium
• Carbimazole
• Thyroxine
• Warfarin and other anti-coagulants
• Metformin
• Vaccines for measles, rubella and yellow fever
• Phenytoin
• Tetracyclines
• Chloroquin
• Roaccutane, tetracycline, minocycline
• Anti-cancer drugs
• Radiation from x-rays

X-Rays

X-rays should be avoided, including dental x-rays, as they can damage the foetus.

Lead

Exposure to lead when you are pregnant may cause brain damage or affect the nerve development of your baby. Lead is also thought to affect your baby’s intellectual development and cause behavioural problems and illnesses in children. It is also linked to miscarriage, premature delivery and low birthweight and stillbirth.
Sources of lead include petrol fumes, lead-based paint and busy highways.

Stress

High stress levels have been linked to difficulties conceiving, hormonal imbalance and miscarriage. Stress is also known to stall the progression of labour by inhibiting the release of oxytocin. If left untreated, it can manifest as physical, emotional and mental conditions. It is thought to be the largest cause of illness in western society.

Natural Therapies

Aloe Vera Drinks

Recent studies have found aloe vera drinks may be associated with miscarriage.

Aromatherapy Essential Oils

Some essential oils used in aromatherapy treatment have the ability to bring on menstrual bleeding and therefore are considered unsafe during pregnancy. Research indicates that neroli (orange blossom flower) and mandarin are the two oils most beneficial and safe to use throughout pregnancy. Lavender is considered safe for use after the first trimester.

Hair Products and Other Cosmetics

Hair colourants and cosmetics generally contain chemicals. Naturopaths believe that ideally it is better to avoid applying anything that is synthetic to the body or hair during pregnancy. Medical professionals however generally do not cite these products as being of grave danger. It comes down to a matter of choice.

Antiperspirants and Deodorants

Many women become concerned about the use of antiperspirants and deodorants during pregnancy. Naturopaths believe that while it is important to consider this during pregnancy, it should be something that women become aware of at all times.
Naturopaths believe it is crucial to use aluminium-free deodorants. They also believe that 'antiperspirants' are harmful to the body as they are designed to prevent a natural process of perspiration by chemically blocking pores, as the name suggests.
There is also growing thought that antiperspirant preparations may be a cause of the rising incidence of breast cancer in the western world.
As an alternative, there are many aluminium-free deodorants available that are fragranced naturally.
Many women favour the 'rock crystal' now available in many health shops. The crystal works by neutralising the bacteria that causes body odour and is simply applied by wetting it and applying it to the underarm area. Always read labels first.

A ground-breaking technique that involves taking eggs from a woman and placing them on ice could revolutionise the way we choose to have children in the future.

A British couple who successfully gave birth to a girl have proved that it is possible to take eggs from a woman’s ovary, place them on ice for six months, before gently thawing them out for test-tube fertilisation.

Lee and Helen Perry gave birth to Emily, who weighed 71b 13 oz, after a straight-forward natural delivery in June. It was the first time in the UK that a woman had achieved pregnancy using her own previously frozen eggs and gone on to give birth to a baby.

Helen Perry (36) had earlier been diagnosed as being at risk of a potentially fatal condition called ovarian hyper stimulation syndrome in which the ovaries become swollen. She was advised that a pregnancy at this stage would endanger her heath.

For religious reasons the couple did not want to store frozen embryos that might later be discarded so instead they allowed the medical team to take some of her unfertilised eggs and keep them on ice until her ovaries had recovered. Six months later these eggs were carefully thawed and an embryo was created using her husband’s sperm.

A first attempt failed but the second was successful.

The fertility specialist, Dr Gillian Lockwood, whose team carried out the procedure using a new technique, says the reason that freezing eggs is a difficult process is because they are essentially fluid-filled bubbles and when frozen, ice crystals tend to form inside them, damaging their internal structure and affecting the chances of fertilisation.

The team used a highly-specialised procedure that involved first removing most of the water from the eggs, then using a chemical solution based on a type of alcohol to protect the eggs. The solution has an anti-freeze effect.

To thaw the eggs the temperature was lowered then gradually raised.

Although a similar procedure has been used in the birth of some 20 babies worldwide, until recently such procedures had been banned in Britain.

For women with diseases requiring medical treatment that might make them sterile, the news brings hope. It means there is a chance that their eggs can be removed and used successfully in later life.

"Egg freezing may come to be seen as the ultimate kind of family planning," said Dr Lockwood.

Although there is nothing to stop women freezing eggs simply to delay motherhood, it remains an uncertain an expensive option.    

Many prescribed drugs or medicines can adversely affect a pregnancy. Drugs can pass through to the placenta and affect the growing foetus. Sometimes pregnancy can also affect the properties of a medication. As a general rule, it is best to avoid taking drugs three months before conceiving and during the first trimester. Always consult your doctor or health professional before taking medication during your pregnancy and when breastfeeding.

There are some medical conditions that require prescribed drugs to be taken during pregnancy and post partum. Such conditions may include:

• diabetes
• epilepsy
• schizophrenia
• some cases of depression

Often these drugs cannot be completely avoided, however it may be recommended that dosages altered by a health professional. Before you take any drug, check with your doctor that it is considered safe during pregnancy.

Over The Counter Drugs

Because drugs are available over the counter, this does not deem them pregnancy-friendly.

Drugs to be especially wary of during pregnancy:

• Aspirin
• Ibuprofen
• Lithium
• Carbimazole
• Thyroxine
• Warfarin and other anti-coagulants
• Metformin
• Vaccines for measles, rubella and yellow fever
• Phenytoin
• Tetracyclines
• Chloroquin
• Roaccutane
• Anti-cancer drugs
• Radiation from x-rays
• Some antibiotics
• Oral medicines for cystitis
• Skin preparations containing vitamin A
• If you are unsure, always ask your health professional.
• Common Medicines & Prescribed Drugs
• Analgesics

Low doses of paracetamol are usually considered safe during pregnancy (women at risk of pre-eclampsia use low-dose aspirin) though high doses for pain relief are considered unsafe. Indomethacin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs should be avoided because they can affect your baby’s kidneys and cause bleeding.

Anti-Acne Tablets

Avoid all those based on vitamin A compounds (retinoic acid) which can cause birth defects. Certain antibiotics used to treat acne such as tetracycline and minocycline should not be taken as they affect your baby’s bones and discolour teeth.

Antibiotics

No antibiotic should be prescribed without careful consideration of the alternatives, as antibiotics interfere with normal gut metabolism. They are of no use in viral infections and can seriously weaken the immune system especially used over prolonged periods of time.

Some are unsafe in pregnancy and have been linked to birth defects. Check with your health professional.

Anti-Coagulants (blood thinning agents)

Heparin is considered safe, as it is unable to pass through to the placenta. Prolonged use for more than six months can effect your bones increasing the risk of developing osteoporosis. Wafarin should not be taken in the first and last trimesters as it may cause bleeding in your baby.

Anti-Convulsants

Pregnant women on anti-convulsants have an increased likelihood of having a malformed baby. These drugs also increase the need for vitamin D. As an alternative, there is evidence to show that by working nutritionally with the levels of magnesium and manganese, in most cases the convulsions will cease.

Anti-Depressants

These are known to decrease sperm count and mobility. Depression can be helped by balancing the trace mineral levels, particularly that of magnesium, manganese and B complex vitamins.

Anti-Hypertensives (Blood Pressure Tablets)

Methyldopa and labetatol have been used for many years and are considered quite safe. Nifedipine is commonly used but has been recently introduced to the market, thus there is limited understanding of possible adverse ramifications. Beta-blockers should be avoided and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors are considered dangerous in pregnancy.

Anti-Migraine Tablets

Many of these contain ergotamine-based substances that have the potential to contract the womb or cause miscarriage.

Anti-Thyroid Tablets

Drugs for an over-active thyroid, including carbimazole and propyithiouracil can cross the placenta and affect your baby’s thyroid function.

Aspirin

Can cross the placenta and cause Reye’s Syndrome, a rare brain and liver disorder in children.

Diuretics (Water Removal Tablets)

Ideally should not be used and any use should be supervised by a doctor.

Epilepsy Tablets

Although taking these drugs may pose a small risk to your baby, the risk to both you and your baby’s health if you stop taking them is potentially greater. Consult your medical professional. If you take these drugs, your levels of folic acid will be lower and therefore a folic acid supplement is recommended.

Ibuprofen

Avoid in the third trimester as it can delay the onset of labour and can have adverse affects on foetal development.

Insulin

This is safe for your baby as it is thought that it is unable to cross through to the placenta. If you are diabetic, you need to maintain a good blood sugar level because glucose can cross the placenta and disrupt balances within your baby.

Lithium

Thought to affect your baby’s thyroid and cause drowsiness in your newborn.

Oral Medicines For Cystitis

These have proven to be unsafe for both pregnant and lactating women.

Tranquilizers And Sleeping Pills

Benzodiazepines such as diazepam or temazepam should not be used at any time during pregnancy. They have been linked with visible malformations, functional problems and behavioural problems in children exposed to them while in the womb. They can affect the central nervous system development in early pregnancy.
In many cases, tranquilizers are taken to counteract the effects of over-stimulation from other social substances such as coffee.

Studies have also found that over-stimulation can arise from deficiencies in zinc, magnesium, manganese and B complex vitamins, which can easily be corrected when recognised.

If you are unsure ask your health professional.

Research indicates that social drugs used during pregnancy have many inherent risks for the developing baby. It is now widely recognised and accepted that the placenta does not act as a barrier to harmful substances. Drugs can also be passed to a newborn through the mother’s milk during breastfeeding.

Babies born to mothers who smoke marijuana and drink alcohol have been found to have a greater risk of Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and are at greater risk of low birth weight.

Drugs affect the absorption of essential nutrients in a number of ways. For example, alcohol causes a loss of B vitamins, zinc and magnesium. It is ideal if both parents can cease recreational drug use in the months leading up to conception. Furthermore, it is recommended that drugs be eliminated throughout the pregnancy and during breastfeeding.

Caffeine

Found in tea, coffee, soft drinks, foods and medicines.

Decaffeinated products are generally not recommended as often the chemicals used in the process of caffeine removal include petroleum-based solvents and other stimulants with possible harmful residue.

Although caffeine relieves fatigue momentarily, in the long term it raises blood pressure and stimulates the kidneys.
It is believed to affect both male and female reproduction. For males, it affects sperm mobility, and in females, it has been linked with miscarriage, chromosomal abnormality and congenital multiple-abnormality. Caffeine is also thought to compromise foetal development during pregnancy.

Amphetamines (Speed)

Speed is associated with premature babies and possibly baby heart problems.

Cocaine and Crack

Cocaine abuse significantly reduces the weight of the foetus and increases the rate of stillbirth. Even a one-off dose can damage a foetus. The cocaine-derivative, crack, has similar effects, however, is much more addictive and is more rapidly absorbed into the vascular system.

Ecstacy

Ecstasy is associated with an increased risk of placental bleeding. Known as the “love drug” ecstasy is considered a relatively new drug, thus there is limited research into any long-term effects. Ecstasy affects the body’s thermostat or internal heating system controlled by the thyroid, and has a highly dehydrating affect on the kidneys and body as a whole. Ironically, it was first used in clinical sessions to assist troubled couples with fertility.

Heroin

Along with other opiate drugs such as morphine, opium and codeine, heroin is linked with decreased fertility and decreased testosterone. Women users have: three times greater risk of stillbirth, four times greater risk of having a premature birth and six times the chance of a baby suffering growth deficiency. It is known that amongst babies born to heroin users, there is a higher incidence of, jaundice, respiratory distress syndrome, low birth weight and pre-natal fatality. A baby born to a heroin-addicted mother is born with an addiction to the drug and must undergo a withdrawal program.

Heroin and methadone

Newborn babies share their mother’s heroin addiction and therefore suffer withdrawal symptoms when they are born. If done with medical supervision, this can be managed by medical staff. Prescribed methadone is preferable to heroin in pregnancy because it supplies a regulated dose to the foetus. The baby must be weaned from its methadone addiction after birth. Coming off heroin suddenly is dangerous and if done while pregnant, can cause miscarriage. Consult your doctor or health professional first.

LSD

LSD increases the risk of miscarriage and chromosomal damage.

Marijuana

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) the psychoactive substance in marijuana, has the steroid structure found in the sex hormones and certain hormones of the adrenal gland. THC tends to accumulate in the ovaries and testes. In women, it can upset the menstrual cycle. It has been linked with lower sperm count, greater impotency and lowers libido, as well as lower sperm mobility and higher level of abnormal sperm.

The drug has been shown to affect the synthesis of DNA and to slow the growth rate of cells. It is likely for babies to be smaller because of the increased carbon monoxide levels, which causes less oxygen available to the foetus.

Smoking

The dangers of smoking remain a topic of debate; however, it is widely accepted that smoking during pregnancy is a major cause of abnormality, handicap and deformity in children. There are more than 4,000 known compounds in tobacco smoke with nicotine the most commonly known.

Babies born to smoking mothers have lower birth weight and this is due to hypoxia. Nicotine itself causes decrease in uterine blood flow, therefore a reduction in oxygen and nutrients being transported to the developing foetus, and interferes with protein metabolism in the placenta. Research has also found abnormally large areas of dead tissue in the placenta of women who smoke during pregnancy. Damage to the placenta further interferes with nutrition for the foetus.

Heavy smokers risk a higher incidence of miscarriage and foetal malformation including cleft palate, harelip, and problems with the central nervous system and minor brain damage. Studies indicate poorer learning ability and behavioural problems in children born to smokers. Children of smokers have higher rates of illness, particularly respiratory infections, and increased risk of cot death.

Passive smoking is also seen as a danger. Carbon monoxide, released by burning cigarettes and cigars, builds up in the atmosphere. High levels lead to a reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, depriving the foetus of oxygen.

Alcohol

Although there is little dispute about the existence Foetal Alcohol Syndrome, there is still considerable disagreement about how much alcohol it is safe to drink. It is known that alcohol travels through the bloodstream to affect the sperm, egg and developing foetus. In the United States, some studies suggest that even the smallest amount of alcohol is detrimental to foetal development and abstinence is generally recommended.

The drinking habits of the male are often overlooked yet it is known that alcohol affects the sperm. In heavy drinkers, the sperm often lack normal tails affecting mobility of the sperm. Research has shown alcohol to cause loss of sperm cells and an increase in abnormal sperm. It also affects testosterone levels and has been linked to male impotence.
Children born to drinking mothers have shown some of the following physical abnormalities:

• central nervous dysfunction
• varying degrees of mental retardation
• growth deficiencies including low birth weight
• facial abnormalities
• heart and dental defects
• birthmarks
• weak ability to suck properly

There is suggestion that FAS may be associated with behavioural patterns such as hyperactivity and Attention Deficit Disorder.