Researchers say angry behaviour even things such as door slamming, shouting loudly and even binge-eating whilst pregnant can affect the development of babies’ hearts.

Infants born to mothers more prone to these impulsive and aggressive acts had less variation in their heart rates after birth, the research found. Variation in heart rate is thought to be healthy because it indicates the body is flexible and adaptable to change. For example, different breathing patterns should affect the heart rate.

But if the heart does not adapt to change it is more at risk of disease and infection. It is already known that adults who have a lower variation in heart rate are more likely to develop heart problems.

Researchers also say the hormonal changes in the body which trigger aggressive behaviour may pass through the placenta to the unborn baby, and could have an influence on the way cells develop. And so staying relaxed and calm whilst pregnant is important – what a better excuse for a spa day!!

The study, led by researchers from the University of Sussex, recruited 49 pregnant women aged between 22 and 39 from childbirth classes. The volunteers were tested to see how likely they were to develop ‘impulsive, uncontrollable bouts of temper’. The women were asked in interviews to describe how they normally dealt with anger and their brain activity was monitored to see how they responded to certain sounds and images designed to prompt a negative reaction. They found 22 women fitted into the ‘angry’ category, nearly half of the volunteer group.

The researchers said this was a higher proportion than would be expected in the general population,  attributing this to the fact that the study had been advertised as investigating the effects of temper on foetal hearts and attracted volunteers concerned about their anger.

After the women gave birth, the electrical activity of the babies’ hearts was measured using an electrocardiogram, or ECG. They found newborns whose mothers were in the angry group had a lower variation in their heart rate.

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Cathy (29) talks about choosing to be a single parent.

"I realised that the only real pressure on me was that pressure I had placed on myself. And once I recognised this, the stress subsided".

I never imagined being a single parent. But when I became pregnant my desire to have a child and be a mother was stronger than I could have imagined. My child's father was from abroad and had no intentions of staying in the country. I realised early on that whether or not I was going to have my baby had nothing to do with him or his plans. I was also at that stage in life where I had lived a varied life in my twenties and now wanted to give myself in a completely different way. Of course I was anxious,
worried whether I'd be a good enough mother when times got tough. But I made an agreement with myself that I could and would do my best to offer my child a great life.

I was under no illusions that it would be a doddle in the park. I had great family support but it was mostly by telephone. I lived in a different city.
My work was freelance, and therefore I felt it was suited to being a single parent. Idealistic I guess but nonetheless I chose to make it work. I refused to think otherwise.
My pregnancy went well. I chose a close friend and asked if she would like to be my birthing partner. Although she had worked with babies and children she had none of her own. So it was a new path for both of us.

Together we went to antenatal classes and I made it my mission to find out about as many community support services and groups as I could. I knew that without a partner or close family I would have to create a network. As it turned out, I was so busy with work and creating my home environment that I became pretty self-contained. I was always fairly independent - in fact too much so. I had to learn to accept offers of help and consent to the fact that I couldn't manage everything alone. My friends were really wonderful.

The birth went well. I had an epidural. It was never something I feared. I was more concerned about managing at home during the first six months. My friends were amazing. And my little girl was a perfect baby. I breastfed for one month but due to work commitments I stopped earlier than I had planned. I beat myself up over it at the time. But then I realised that the only real pressure on me was that pressure I had placed on myself. And once I recognised this, the stress subsided. It was like someone had turned a dial.

I think the most difficult part for me was that my baby looked so much like her father. She was like this constant reminder, not so much of him, but of the choice I had made. And during those weakened moments when hormones ran riot I did question myself as to whether I'd made the right decision - and whether or not I had a right to make the decision that my daughter would not grow up with her father. But somehow you reconcile this and you hope that the huge capacity you have within you to give love, unconditional love, would count for more than many children receive in a so-called normal family environment. Well, that was how I justified it. I grew up in a wonderful family environment and it was my aim to recreate this for my gorgeous daughter.

Luckily I had worked hard before my pregnancy and saved for a rainy day. I owned a home and I had a car. For the first nine months I employed a cleaner for a couple of hours a day two days a week. I felt my daughter and I deserved this.

It was nerve-wracking eventually looking for more permanent childcare but I knew that as a single parent I had to relinquish my role at times and trust other people to take car of Milly in my absence. This was hard. But essential for both our lives.

Milly is now two and a half. There is no one else in my life and I'm not looking for anyone as yet. With hindsight perhaps my ability to enjoy my own company in my earlier life helped set me up for single parenting.

I can't deny that there haven't been moments of complete exasperation and exhaustion but the joy I get from watching my little girl grow is unequalled by anything in this world.
All I can say to any single parents out there is hang in there and enjoy every moment.

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Rachel (24) gave birth to her son Jack and five months later, her partner left the family home.

I guess I had hoped that the father of my child would miraculously come back and we'd be a family again. It's only now three years later that I realise we are actually okay - just the two of us.
To be honest I struggled at first. My birth wasn't straight forward. I had hoped to give birth naturally, as my sisters and mother all had. But I needed an emergency Caesarean and it knocked my confidence. My recovery was scattered. Here I was trying to be a mom and I was so overcome with this sense of failure. I got depressed - maybe it was postnatal depression but it was never diagnosed. Instead I went through the motions of looking after Jack. Looking back it was like I was somewhere else. I don't remember much. Maybe I blocked it. Or maybe it was that I was using all my energy to care for Jack. I just remember being constantly overwhelmed. When my partner left it was both a shock and a relief. He was always uneasy about commitment and I guess I had hoped that a baby would bring us together. I am almost embarrassed to say that now but after my initial grief I realised that it was all up to me. Jack's father was still contributing money so I didn't have to work.
And somehow I pulled through. I had family to help me. My mother was incredible. So supportive. On many nights I slept over at her house. I knew I was becoming dependent on her but I needed it at the time.

It was all so consuming, I needed to be able to go out now and then to do things that allowed me to feel normal. Even just a walk in the park or to the shops. And my mother was there to help me. I ended up moving in for six months before moving to a smaller apartment for just Jack and I.

I guess I was such a cocktail of emotions. Confused, angry, sad, but happy too and sooooo in love with my son. I didn't want my emotional fragility to be passed on to my son. That was my paranoia. And that's what I believed turned me around. My determination to at least be normal enough to give to my son. Once we moved into the new place, I felt I had been given a fresh start.
I don't feel like a single parent because I have had my family around. But I guess I do fall into that category and our world is structured towards two-parent lives. You've just got to rise above all these antiquated pre-conceived ideas.

My mother looks after Jack so I can work mornings. I don't know what people do without their loved ones close to them. I was lucky. In retrospect my relationship with Jack's dad was never going to work. You kid yourself that maybe, just maybe, there would be a change of heart and it would all be perfect. But the further away I got from it all the more I realised the positive points of going it alone.
And there are great points. You have this incredible bond with your child. There's nothing like it - nothing to describe it. As mixed up as I have been, I know I have come through as a much more capable, better person and mother. I don't have the distraction of a mediocre relationship bringing me down. I'm a lot more philosophical too.

Jack's father visits now and then and there is some sort of involvement. I hope its good for Jack. I am a little cautious but I have made myself a promise to be as positive as I can. I understand that it is their relationship and for me to prevent it or yell and scream obscenities would be fruitless. It's about putting everything into little compartments and knowing what's important in each compartment.
My interests are with Jack.

You realise that each and every family has its own unique chaos. Whether it be a one or two-parent family. And at the end of the day the most important thing is being able to give your child the platform he/she deserves to live, love and be happy. I've learned so much. And it's only the beginning.

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More and more women go through pregnancy, labour and parenthood alone.

Australian figures show that almost 40 per cent of mothers who gave birth in 2000 were unmarried and the number of one-parent families is projected to increase by up to two thirds within the next 25 years.

While we can assume that some of these unmarried mothers may be involved or living with a partner, it remains a fact that single-parent families are becoming more common. As a result single parenting has become far more widely accepted in our society than it was even two decades ago.

The terms "broken home" and "solo mum" are rarely uttered these days thanks to political correctness and society recognising that lifestyles and patterns are changing.

Perhaps too the media's fixation with high profile celebrity single mums going about their lives has actually helped present single parenthood in a different light, helping quash the futile and antiquated stigma that was so readily attached to single parenthood.

Emerging instead is a more quietly respectful awe of these seemingly competent and confident women who embark on parenthood unaided.

Let's not forget that only a generation ago, pregnant single women were sent away by their families in disgrace to give birth in secrecy. Surrounded by people they did not know, these mothers were then commanded to give their babies for adoption and expected to return to their lives without a word.
Childless and bereft, this was the birth story of many women in this country.

Focus

The reasons why a woman might find herself single and confronting motherhood are varied. It may be a relationship break-up, an unplanned pregnancy, death of a loved one or simply choice that finds a woman without a partner at this time.

But whatever the circumstances, it is important to focus on the health and wellbeing of both yourself and your baby during pregnancy and as a parent.
Take comfort in knowing that many women have given birth and raised vibrant and happy children on their own. Recent studies in Britain have proved that children raised in single parent environments can excel just as well as those children from two parent families, demonstrating that it's the quality, not quantity, of parenting that counts.

Fortunately society has progressed and recognised that needs have changed.
There is more help available today to a single parent than ever before including government assistance if you are unable to financially support yourself and your child. There are many community support networks to help you.

Network

It is natural to have anxieties and at times you may feel isolated. Single parents are united in their need for extra support. Having access to a network of reliable friends and family can be a huge help. If this isn't possible, establish contact with other single parents in your area and spend time with people who are going through the same feelings and changes as you.

Professionals

Find a midwife or doctor you feel comfortable with and trust. It is important that you feel you can confide in this person. There are many options of antenatal care* available to you. Talk to your general practitioner about which would suit you best.

Prenatal Class

Enrol in a prenatal class. There's no need to be uncomfortable about going to a class alone as many women attend without partners. If it bothers you may wish to take a friend. You will learn a lot of practical information about the birth and coping with a baby. Quiz your midwive as much as you can - you can never know enough. Try pregnancy yoga or an antenatal aqua class
where you will meet third and fourth-time mothers with a sense of humour and some gems of advice. 

Allocate time for you

Make time for yourself. Whether it's a long walk, a meditation, writing a pregnancy diary or a soak in the bath, it's vital you look after yourself. For a treat, book a massage near the end of the second trimester. It's a good investment and a great way to relax.

Preparation

Be practical and organise as much as you can before the birth. In the latter stages of pregnancy, cook food in advance to freeze* for when you return home. If you can afford it, buy a large freezer and a good washing machine. Ask your generous and doting friends and family members for a nappy
laundering service as a combined gift. 

Birthing Partner

Contemplating pregnancy without the father of your child does not mean you must face labour and birth alone. Think constructively about who you would like with you. Choose a birthing partner who can be with you at the antenatal classes and during the delivery.

In many cultures, birth is something that is attended by women only.

Research carried out has revealed that if a woman is accompanied by a female birthing partner, there is less need for pain relief and labour is shorter with less medical intervention. The babies are in better condition at birth. More and more "doulas" are being used at births around the world.

Doula is a Greek word for "female birthing companion" and marks a return to ancient and tribal custom.

In Tibet, women about to give birth are taken away from their villages to a birthing hut lined with straw. There are no men and only one other woman present. The woman has the freedom to move around during labour, acting spontaneously and intuitively at every stage. Delivery usually occurs in an upright position, using gravity. The baby is placed on the mother's chest as soon as it is born and together the two remain in the hut alone for the first month. The birth partner continues to deliver food but no men see the mother or child, not even the father.

Returning Home

Once you return home with your newborn, have someone stay with you to help during the first month. All mothers say, with or without a partner, this is the most physically and emotionally draining time of all. Never be afraid to ask for help. If friends are visiting, ask them to bring ready prepared meals to freeze rather than a gift. Be resourceful and cheeky. You will be anxious at first and you will make mistakes. Every mother does. Try to relax a little and maintain some degree of humour. Life will calm down eventually. 

Parenting

Very few people approach parenthood without some fear about their suitability in the role of raising children. It is natural to feel this way though this may seem compounded when facing the role alone. Think positively and take steps to make the transition easier. Some single parents feel guilty. And if you want a night out, arrange a babysitter and go.

Guilt has no place in your new role. Drop any negative emotions you may have and consider how single parenting can have its advantages. Two individuals coming together from different backgrounds with contrary family values can bring friction in values and decision-making. As a single parent you are able to raise your child in your own way. You have no partner to question or criticise your logic. As a result your relationship with your child may be closer. It may also be more intense as you will be the main focus of your child's love and needs. 

Love

Children need love and security and you can provide that.
It's not an easy task, and often it may seem a thankless one. But few women ever regret having children.

Affirmations

Some of these may work for you. Or alternatively feel comfortable to make
up your own.

• I trust and love my pregnant body
• I trust in my body to give birth naturally
• I am able to embrace each contraction and control it
• My breath is my energy
• I trust my ability to remain strong and positive
• My child and I have chosen each other
• I welcome the birth of my child
• I have an innate knowledge for motherhood
• I will make my needs clear to others
• I am open to help if I need it

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